Translation Techniques

http://www.slideshare.net/elenashapa/translation-types

Translation Methods

http://www.slideshare.net/dr.shadiabanjar/methods-of-translation-presentation

Dependent Clauses and Types of Sentences Exercises

Click within the small circle to the left of your choice for each answer. A javascript box will appear to tell you that your choice is correct or incorrect. After clicking "OK" within the javascript alert, you may try another answer or proceed to the next question if your first choice was correct. The phrase "prescriptively correct" means that other possibilities might be acceptable in informal writing or speech, but the prescriptively correct option would be most recommended for formal, academic writing.

 1. What is true of the following example? "Many people probably think that politeness is simply a social lubricant."
A. It contains a prepositional phrase.
B. It contains an adjectival clause.
C. It contains an adverbial clause.
D. It contains a noun clause.
E. None of the above.

2. What is true of the following example? "The expanding economy of the 1920s created new freedom for young people, who began to break away from their families and live on their own."
A. It contains a noun clause.
B. It contains an adverbial clause.
C. It contains a relative clause.
D. It contains no dependent clause.

3. What is true of the following example? "If society as a whole cannot be rejuvenated, the individual needs to work for personal certainty."
A. It contains a noun clause.
B. It contains an adverbial clause.
C. It contains an adjectival clause.
D. It contains an appositive phrase.
E. None of the above.

4. What is true of the following example? "He did not care about why I wanted a dog."
A. It contains a noun clause.
B. It contains an adverbial clause.
C. It contains an adjectival clause.
D. It contains an appositive phrase.
E. None of the above.

5. What is true of the following example? "The man whose dog you wanted is here."
A. It contains a noun clause.
B. It contains an adverbial clause.
C. It contains a relative clause.
D. It contains an appositive phrase.
E. None of the above.

6. What is true of the following example? "College students who spend four years on their degrees generally make more money than graduates of two-year colleges."
A. It contains a restrictive noun clause.
B. It contains a non-restrictive noun clause.
C. It contains a restrictive relative clause.
D. It contains a non-restrictive relative clause.
E. None of the above.

7. What is true of the following example? "You might hurt yourself if you don't watch out."
A. It contains a noun clause.
B. It contains an adverbial clause.
C. It contains an adjectival clause.
D. It contains an appositive phrase.
E. None of the above.

8. What is true of the following example? "A man had just married an automobile."
A. It is a simple sentence.
B. It is a complex sentence.
C. It is a compound sentence.
D. It is a compound-complex sentence.
E. None of the above.

9. What is true of the following example? "The ape is accepted, and sits quietly smoking a cigar and reading a newspaper, which he holds upside down."
A. It is a simple sentence.
B. It is a complex sentence.
C. It is a compound sentence.
D. It is a compound-complex sentence.
E. None of the above.

10. What is true of the following example? "He doesn't like it, but he wants it to like him."
A. It is a simple sentence.
B. It is a complex sentence.
C. It is a compound sentence.
D. It is a compound-complex sentence.
E. None of the above.

Identifying Independent Clauses Exercises

Identifying Independent Clauses

After each sentence select the option that best describes the use of clauses in that sentence.

---

1. The doctor told Charlie to lose weight and exercise vigorously for forty-five minutes a day.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

This sentence has no independent clauses.

This sentence has one independent clause.

---

2. The doctor was worried that Charlie was putting on too much weight.

The section in blue is an independent clause.

The independent clause is "The doctor was worried."

This sentence has no independent clause.

---

3. Charlie has a hard time sticking to a diet; he really loves rich, sweet desserts.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

This sentence has one independent clause.

This sentence has no independent clauses.

---

4. In fact, the last time he tried to lose weight, he ended up actually gaining weight.

"he ended up actually gaining weight" is the only independent clause.

The section in blue is the independent clause.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

---

5. Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer because he is worried about his heart.

The section in blue is an independent clause.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

"Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer" is the independent clause.

---

6. His new personal trainer, whose name is Adriana Bongiorno, thinks Charlie may be a lost cause.

The part in blue is not an independent clause.

The part in blue is an independent clause.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

---

7. That she can make him do the exercises but not stick to the diet.

The part in blue is the independent clause.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

This sentence has no independent clause.

---

8. He is very good as long as Miss Bongiorno is around, but he goes to the freezer for ice-cream when she leaves.

This sentence has three independent clauses.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

This sentence has one independent clause.

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9. Charlie must learn that eating all those sweets may give him a temporary pleasure but that it's not good for his heart and that he would feel better about himself if he stopped eating all those rich and sweet foods that are not good for him.

The independent clause has three words.

The independent clause begins with the first "that."

This sentence has several independent clauses.

---

10. Miss Bongiorno is starting to make a difference, though, and Charlie is starting to make some progress.

This sentence has one independent clause.

The clause following "though" is a dependent clause.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

Clauses

In grammar, a clause is the smallest grammar unit that can express a complete proposition. A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate, where the predicate is typically a verb phrase – a verb together with any objects and other modifiers. However the subject is sometimes not expressed; this is often the case in null-subject languages, if the subject is retrievable from context, but it also occurs in certain cases in other languages such as English (as in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses).
A simple sentence usually consists of a single finite clause with a finite verb that is independent. More complex sentences may contain multiple clauses. Main clauses (= matrix clauses, independent clauses) are those that could stand as a sentence by themselves. Subordinate clauses (= embedded clauses, dependent clauses) are those that would be awkward or nonsensical if used alone.

Independent Clauses

An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself, also known as a simple sentence. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate; it makes sense by itself.
Independent clauses can be joined by using a semicolon or a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Denpendent Clauses

A dependent clause (or a subordinate clause) is a clause that augments an independent clause with additional information, but which cannot stand alone as a sentence. Dependent clauses either modify the independent clause of a sentence or serve as a component of it. Some grammarians use the term subordinate clause as a synonym for dependent clause. Other grammars use subordinate clause to refer only to adverbial dependent clauses. There are also different types of dependent clauses, including noun clauses, relative (adjectival) clauses, and adverbial clauses.

Dependent clauses often begin with a a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (see below) that makes the clause unable to stand alone.

Subordinating Conjunctions
after	although	as	because
before	even if	even though	if
in order that	once	provided that	rather than
since	so that	than	that
though	unless	until	when
whenever	where	whereas	wherever
whether	while	why

Relative Pronouns
that	which	whichever
who	whoever	whom
whose	whosever	whomever

For example:
The door opened because the man pushed it.
Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival.
A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the following: that | if | whether
For example:

• I wondered whether the homework was necessary.

Noun clauses answer questions like "who(m)?" or "what?"


An adverbial clause (adverb clause) is a word or expression in the sentence that functions as an adverb; that is, it tells you something about how the action in the verb was done. An adverbial clause is separated from the other clauses by any of the following subordinating conjunctions: after | although | as | because | before | if | since | that | though | till | unless | until | when | where | while
For example:

• They will visit you before they go to the airport.

Adverbial clauses can also be placed before the main clause without changing the meaning.
For example:

• Before they go to the airport, they will visit you.

!Note - When an adverb clause introduces the sentence (as this one does), it is set off with a comma.
Adverb clauses answer questions like "when?", "where?", "why?"
An adjectival clause (adjective clause or relative clause) does the work of an adjective and describes a noun, it's usually introduced by a relative pronoun: who | whom | whose | that | which
For example:

• I went to the show that was very popular.

This kind of clause is used to provide extra information about the noun it follows. This can be to define something (a defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added information (a non-defining clause).
For example:

• The car that is parked in front of the gates will be towed away. (Defining relative clause.)

Information contained in the defining relative clause is absolutely essential in order for us to be able to identify the car in question.

• My dog, who is grey and white, chased the postman. ( Non-defining relative clause)

A non-defining relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. If you take away the non-defining clause the basic meaning of the sentence remains intact.
For example:

• My dog chased the postman.

Adjective clauses answer questions like "which?" or "what kind of?"

Summary

An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); an adverb clause functions as an adverb (describes a verb, adjective or other adverb); a noun clause is used as a noun (subject of a verb, direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative or object of the preposition).
!Note - The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a phrase does not contain a finite verb.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally indicated by a relative pronoun at the start of the clause, although sometimes you can tell simply by word order. The choice of relative pronoun, or choice to omit one, can be affected by the following:-

Human or Non-human?

We make a distinction between an antecedent that is a human — who(m) — and an antecedent which is a non-human — which.
Who(m) is used when the antecedent is a person.
That is used to refer to either a person or thing.
Which is used to refer to anything exept a person.

• I met a man and a woman yesterday. The woman, who had long blonde hair, was very pretty.
• The man she was with, was the man that / who won the race.
• The race was the one that I lost.
• The man, to whom the winnings were given, was with the woman who was very pretty.
  

!Note - Whom is not used much in spoken English.

Restrictive or Non-restrictive?

Restrictive relative clauses are sometimes called defining relative clauses, or identifying relative clauses. Similarly, non-restrictive relative clauses are called non-defining or non-identifying relative clauses.
In English a non-restrictive relative clause is preceded by a pause in speech or a comma in writing, unlike a restrictive clause.
For example:-

The builder, who erects very fine houses, will make a large profit.
This example, with commas, contains a non-restrictive relative clause. It refers to a specific builder, and assumes we know which builder is intended. It tells us firstly about his houses, then about his profits.

The builder who erects very fine houses will make a large profit.
This second example uses a restrictive relative clause. Without the commas, the sentence states that any builder who builds such houses will make a profit.

Restrictive		Non-restrictive
Human	Nonhuman	Human	Nonhuman
Subject	who, that	which, that	who	which
Object	who, whom, that, Ø	which, that, Ø	who, whom	which
After preposition	whom	which	whom	which
Possessive	whose, of whom	whose, of which	whose, of whom	whose, of which

Passive Voice Exercises

 

 PASSIVE VOICE AND THE NEWS

THE PASSIVE VOICE IS GENERALLY USED TO TALK ABOUT THE NEWS ON RADIO, TELEVISION AND IN THE NEWSPAPERS.

PUT THESE TEXTS INTO THE PASSIVE: Remember to use capital letters at the beginning of each sentence, a stop sign (.) at the end and to use the correct apostrophe (') sign".

Remember also that intransitive verbs (arrive, go...) cannot be put into passive, so some verbs will remain active.

TEXT 1:

Some people saw a UFO in the sky above Madrid last Tuesday. They reported it to the police. The army sent a helicopter to have a closer look. The UFO shot the helicopter down and killed the pilot. Some young people have given photographs of the UFO to the police. Experts are investigating them at the moment.

TEXT 2:

Somebody has stolen a lady's bag near a high-school this afternoon. The students saw the robber and told the police. They are looking for him now. They will use the children’s descriptions to catch the man as soon as possible.

TEXT 3:

Someone broke into a clothes shop last week. The owner was locking up the shop when a robber with a gun threatened her. The robber told her to open the door and give him all the money from the till. Then the robber tied the woman up. The police hope they will find him in a few days. Doctors are treating the owner of the shop for shock at the local hospital.

TEXT 4:

Our school has organised a contest. Any student can participate. You have to design an environmental friendly object. All the pupils will vote and they will choose the best idea. The participants can also include pictures and drawings. The school doesn't allow any adult to help the students with the projects. The school will give the winner a set of books about nature.

 

Write a news report in the Passive using the notes below.

 

A small German village- flod- intense rains - last night. Fortunately many people - can- rescue.  However, most houses - destroy- the force of the water. Soldiers -already- send- to the village. The local sports centre- be used - as temporary shelter - for those who - lose their houses. Efforts- still- make to clear the village. Clean water, food and blankets- send- nearby countries in the next few days. Heavy rains -also- predict- next week. Any further news- give- to you as soon as it arrives.

Passive voice

Passive Voice 

 

Reported Speech Exercises

Complete the sentences in reported speech.

1. John said, "I love this town."
   John said
2. "Do you like soccer ?" He asked me.
   He asked me
3. "I can't drive a lorry," he said.
   He said
4. "Be nice to your brother," he said.
   He asked me
5. "Don't be nasty," he said.
   He urged me
6. "Don't waste your money" she said.
   She told the boys
7. "What have you decided to do?" she asked him.
   She asked him
8. "I always wake up early," he said.
   He said
9. "You should revise your lessons," he said.
   He advised the students
10. "Where were you born?" he asked me.
    He wanted to know

Reported Speech Grammar Part II

Place, demonstratives and time expressions

Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (i.e. the location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech.
In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time expressions.

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Time Expressions
today	that day
now	then
yesterday	the day before
… days ago	… days before
last week	the week before
next year	the following year
tomorrow	the next day / the following day
Place
here	there
Demonstratives
this	that
these	those

B. Reporting Questions

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

• pronouns
• place and time expressions
• tenses (backshift)

Also note that you have to:

• transform the question into an indirect question
• use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if / whether

Types of questions	Direct speech	Reported speech
With question word (what, why, where, how...)	"Why" don’t you speak English?”	He asked me why I didn’t speak English.
Without question word (yes or no questions)	“Do you speak English?”	He asked me whether / if I spoke English.

C. Reporting requests / commands

When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change:

• pronouns
• place and time expressions

Direct speech	Reported speech
“Nancy,do the exercise.“	He told Nancy to do the exercise.
"Nancy, give me your pen, please."	He asked Nancy to give him her pen.

Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to  / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")

Example:
She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.
She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy

For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to) For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).

D. Other transformations

• Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.
  Example:
  “You must read this book.“
  He advised / urged me to read that book.
• The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
  Example:
  “Let’s go to the cinema.“=
  1. He suggested going to the cinema.
  2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.

Reported Speech Grammar

Table for change in tense of reported speech for all TENSES.

Usually in reported speech the main sentence move back into a before verb tense.

     TENSE CHANGE - IN - INDIRECT SPEECH
     Present simple tense into Past simple
     Present Continuous tense into Past continuous
     Present Perfect tense into Pas perfect
     Present Perfect Continuous into Past perfect continuous
     Past simple into Past Perfect
     Past Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous
     Past Perfect into Past Perfect
     Future simple, will into would
     Future Continuous, will be into would be
     Future Perfect, will have into would have

Examples.

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
PRESENT TENSE
PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE
He said, “I write a letter” She said, “he goes to school daily” They said, “we love our country” He said, “he does not like computer”	He said that he wrote a letter. He said that she went to school daily. They said that they loved their country He said that he did not like computer.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS
He said, “he is listening to the music” She said, “I am washing my clothes” They said, “we are enjoying the weather” I said, “it is raining” She said, “I am not laughing”	He said that he was listening to the music. She said that she was washing her clothes. They said that they were not enjoying the weather. She said that she was not laughing.
PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT
She said, “he has finished his work” He said, “I have started a job” I said, “she have eaten the meal” They said, “we have not gone to New York.	She said that he had finished his work. He said that he had started a job. I said that she had eaten the meal. They said that they had not gone to New York.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said, “I have been studying since 3 O’clock” She said, “It has been raining for three days.” I said, “She has been working in this office since 2007”	He said that he had been studying since 3 O’clock. She said that it been raining for three days. I said that she had been working in this office since 2007.
PAST TENSE
PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT
He said to me, “you answered correctly” John said, “they went to cinema” He said, “I made a table” She said, “I didn’t buy a car”	He said to me that I had answered correctly. John said that they had gone to cinema. He said that he had made a table. She said that she had not bought a car.
PAST CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
They said, “we were enjoying the weather” He said to me, “ I was waiting for you” I said, “It was raining” She said, “I was not laughing”	They said that they had been enjoying. He said to me that he had been waiting for me. I said that it had been raining. She said that she not been laughing.
PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (tense does not change)
She said, “She had visited a doctor” He said, “I had started a business” I said, “she had eaten the meal” They said, “we had not gone to New York.	She said that she had visited a doctor. He said that he had started a business. I said that she had eaten the meal. They said they had not gone to New York.
FUTURE TENSE
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE WILL changes into WOULD
He said, “I will study the book” She said, “I will buy a computer” They said to me, “we will send you gifts” I said, “I will not take the exam”	He said that he would study the book. She said that she would buy a computer. They said to me that they would send you gifts. I said that I would not take the exam.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE WILL BE changes into WOULD BE
I said to him, “ I will be waiting for him” She said,” I will be shifting to new home” He said, “I will be working hard” He said, “he will not be flying kite”	I said to him that I would be waiting for him. She said that she would be shifting to a new home. He said that he would be working hard. She said that he would not be flying kites.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE
He said, “I will have finished the work” She said, “they will have passed the examination” He said, “I will have gone”	He said that he would have finished the work. She said that they would have passed the examination. He said that he would have gone.

Note: The tense of reported speech may not change if reported speech is a universal truth though its reporting verb belongs to past tense.

Reported Speech

Indirect speech, also called reported speech or indirect discourse, is a means of expressing the content of statements, questions or other utterances, without quoting them explicitly as is done in direct speech. For example, He said "I'm coming" is direct speech, whereas He said he was coming is indirect speech. Indirect speech should not be confused with indirect speech acts.
In terms of grammar, indirect speech often makes use of certain syntactic structures such as content clauses ("that" clauses, such as (that) he was coming), and sometimes infinitive phrases. References to questions in indirect speech frequently take the form of interrogative content clauses, also called indirect questions (such as whether he was coming).
In indirect speech certain grammatical categories are changed relative to the words of the original sentence. For example, person may change as a result of a change of speaker or listener (as I changes to he in the example above). In some languages, including English, the tense of verbs is often changed – this is often called sequence of tenses. Some languages have a change of mood: Latin switches from indicative to the infinitive (for statements) or the subjunctive (for questions).
When written, indirect speech is not normally enclosed in quotation marks or any similar typographical devices for indicating that a direct quotation is being made. However such devices are sometimes used to indicate that the indirect speech is a faithful quotation of someone's words (with additional devices such as square brackets and ellipses to indicate deviations or omissions from those words), as in He informed us that "after dinner [he] would like to make an announcement".

 

NOTE: To change sentences into reported speech you have to dominate English verb tenses.

Neither vs Either Grammar

Either/Neither

The English words either and neither can cause some problems for native and non-native speakers of English. Sometimes you can use either one and sometimes you have to choose either one or the other, but neither one is very difficult.
 
Either... Or
Either... or is used to offer a choice between two possibilities:

Either Mike or Lisa will be there.
Either you leave me alone or I will call the police.
We should bring either coffee or tea.
You can either help us or go to your room.

Either can also be followed by (one) of + group of two:

Either of us could do it
Either one of us could do it
Either of you should know
Either one of you should know

Not... either... or denies both possibilities:

I don't think either Mike or Lisa will be there.
He doesn't speak either English or French.

Not... either is used after a negative statement.

I don't speak French.
You don't either.
He isn't ready to go.
We aren't either.

    
Neither... nor
Neither... nor is equivalent to not... either... or.

Neither Mike nor Lisa will be there.
He speaks neither English nor French.
We brought neither coffee nor tea.
I will neither help you nor go to my room.

Neither can also be followed by (one) of + group of two:

Neither of them is ready.
Neither one of them is ready.
Neither of us has any money.
Neither one of us has any money.

Neither is used like not... either.

I don't speak French.
Neither do I.
(informal): Me neither.
He isn't ready to go.
Neither are we.

 

The Bottom Line
Either means one, neither means none, and not either equals neither. Or goes with either and nor goes with neither

They who can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety deserve neither liberty nor safety.
Benjamin Franklin
Read more at http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/neither.html#PiJyhisWOm1D8ktl.99

They who can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety deserve neither liberty nor safety.
Benjamin Franklin
Read more at http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/neither.html#PiJyhisWOm1D8ktl.99

Prefixes/Suffixes Exercises

PREFIXES and SUFFIXES

Task: Add a PREFIX and/or SUFFIX to the words below and put them in the correct sentence. In brackets you'll find some information on the parts of speech to use.

PROBABLE     COMMUNICATE     AGREE     CURIOUS     ANGER     HEALTH

     RESPONSIBLE     FAME     HELP     LIKE     CAREFUL     CONCLUDE

a) The lights are green, but nobody is moving. He is so  . (adjective)

b) Don't you know that saying " killed the cat?"  (noun)

c) I think you should drive more . You're scaring me. (adverb)

d) She is a very  TV star. (adjective)

e) They have different opinions on the subject. Their  will last forever. (noun with a negative meaning)

f) Brian is always late for work. He is so . (adjective with a negative meaning)

g) This Math problem is very difficult. Mary didn't come to any   .  (noun)

h) He can't see the banana peel. He will  slip and fall. (adverb)

i) You shouldn't eat so much junk food. It's very .   (adjective with a negative meaning)

j) Thanks for finding my cat. You're a very  young man.  (adjective)

k) My parents are always fighting. There is no  between them anymore.  (noun)

l) I really  my packed lunch. It doesn't smell so nice. (verb with a negative meaning)

Suffixes

art 2: suffixes

We have already seen how prefixes can change the meaning of a word. Let us now consider some suffixes, their usual meanings, and how they change the meanings of English words:

Suffixes
Nouns	Verbs	Adjectives	Adverbs
-ance	-ize	-able	-ly
-ence	-ate	-ible
-or	-fy	-less
-er	-en	-ic
-ist	-ify	-ical
		-ish
		-ive

Study these tables. Try and find additional examples using your dictionary:

1. Noun-forming suffixes:
Suffix	Meaning	Examples
-ance	state	performance
-ence	quality of	independence
-er, -or	a person who a thing which	programmer, operator, biographer compiler, accumulator, processor, calculator
-ist, -yst	a person who	analyst, typist
-ian	pertaining to	electrician
-tion, -ation	the act of	compilation
-ness	condition of	readiness, cleanliness, happiness
-ion	action/state	conversion
-ing	activity	multiplexing
-ment	state, action	measurement, requirement
-ity	state, quality	electricity
-ism	condition/state	magnetism
-dom	domain/condition	freedom
-ship	condition/state	relationship, partnership

2. Verb-forming suffixes:
Suffix	Meaning	Examples
-ize/-ise	to make	computerize
-ate		automate, activate, calculate
-ify		simplify
-en		harden, widen, lengthen, shorten

3. Adverb-forming suffix:
Suffix	Meaning	Examples
-ly	in the manner of	electronically, logically, comparably, slowly, quickly, automatically, carefully

4. Adjective-forming suffixes:
Suffix	Meaning	Examples
-al	having the quality of	computational, logical
-ar		circular, rectangular, cellular, regular
-ic		magnetic, automatic
-ical		electrical
-able	capable of being	comparable
-ble		divisible
-ous	like, full of	dangerous, insiduous, miraculous
-ful	characterized by	helpful, careful
-less	without	careless, meaningless
-ish	like	yellowish
-ed	having the quality of	computed, processed
-ive		interactive

5. Words ending in -ing

Note that words ending in -ing are formed from verbs. The -ing form may be used as a noun, part of a noun phrase, or part of a verb

Programming is an interesting job (noun) Programming in C is interesting (part of a noun phrase) He is working as a programmer (part of a verb)

Prefixes

Let us now consider some prefixes, their usual meanings, and how they change the meanings of English words.

Part 1: prefixes

Prefixes:
Negative & positive	Size	Location	Time & order	Number
un-	semi-	inter-	pre-	mono-
non-	mini-	super-	ante-	bi-
in-	micro-	trans-	fore-	hex-
dis-		ex-	post-	oct-
re-		extra-		multi-
		peri-

Study these tables. Try and find additional examples using your dictionary:

1. Negative and positive prefixes:
	Prefix	Meaning	Examples
Negative:	un-	not	unmagnetized
	in-	not	incomplete
	im-	not	impossible
	il-	not	illegal
	ir-	not	irregular, irrelevant
	non-	not connected with	non-programmable
	mis-	bad, wrong	misdirect
	mal-	bad, wrong	malfunction
	dis-	opposite feeling	disagree
	dis-	opposite action	disconnect
	anti-	against	antiglare, antistatic
	de-	reduce, reverse	demagnetize, decode
	under-	too little	underestimate
Positive:	re-	do again	reorganize
	over-	too much	overload

2. Prefixes of size:
Prefix	Meaning	Examples
semi-	half, partly	semiconductor
equi-	equal	equidistant
mini-	small	minicomputer
micro-	very small	microcomputer, microscopic
macro-	large, great	macroeconomics
mega-	large, great	megabyte

3. Prefixes of location:
Prefix	Meaning	Examples
inter-	between, among	interface, interactive
super-	over	supersonic
trans-	across	transmit, transfer
ex-	out	exclude, extrinsic
extra-	beyond	extraordinary
sub-	under	subschema, subtraction
infra-	below	infra-red
peri-	around	peripheral, periscope

4. Prefixes of time and order:
Prefix	Meaning	Examples
ante-	before	antecedent
pre-	before	prefix, preceding, precedent
prime-	first	primary, primitive
post-	after	postdated, post-natal
retro-	backward	retrograde, retroactive

5. Prefixes of numbers:
Prefix	Meaning	Examples
semi-	half	semicircle
mono-	one	monochromatic
bi-	two	binary
tri-	three	triangle
quad-	four	quadruple
penta-	five	pentagon
hex-	six	hexadecimal
sept(em)-	seven	September
oct-	eight	octal
dec-	ten	decimal
multi-	many	multiplexor, multicoloured

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6. Other prefixes:
Prefix	Meaning	Examples
pro-	before, in advance, forward	programme, progress, procreation
auto-	self	automatic
co-	together with	co-ordinate, co-operate
con-	together with	connect